UNIT 4 - PROTEINS

Introduction

Proteins are complex organic compounds that contain carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, and usually Sulphur or phosphorus.
They are composed of one or more chains of amino acids.
Proteins are fundamental components of all living cells and include many substances, such as enzymes, hormones, and antibodies that are necessary for the proper functioning of an organism.
They are essential in the diet of animals for the growth and repair of tissue and can be obtained from foods such as meat, fish, eggs, milk, and legumes.

Basic Structure of a Protein

Proteins are made up of hundreds or thousands of smaller units called amino acids, which are attached to one another in long chains.
There are 20 different types of amino acids that can be combined to make a protein. 9 are essential and 11 are non essential.
The sequence of amino acids determines each protein’s unique 3-dimensional structure and its specific function.
The bond which unites the two amino acids is called a peptide bond.
 One amino acid has
1 carboxyl group (COOH)
1 amino group or nitrogen group (NH2)
1 hydrogen (H)
And 1 functional group (R)

NH2CHRCOOH.

Classification of protein based on origin

Classification of protein based on characterization

Classification of protein based on function

Structure of Protein

Effect of heat on proteins (Denaturation)

At the molecular level, natural proteins are shaped like coils or springs. When natural proteins are exposed to heat, salt, or acid, they denature—that is, their coils unwind.

When proteins denature, they tend to bond together, or coagulate, and form solid lumps.
Coagulation is what which occurs on the physical structure during denaturation. As the proteins gets denaturated it become a hard or solid structure which is called as coagulation.
An example of this is a cooked egg white, which changes from a transparent fluid to an opaque solid. As proteins coagulate, they lose some of their capacity to hold water, which is why protein-rich foods give off moisture as they cook, even if they are steamed or poached. Denatured proteins are easier to digest than native proteins.

Factors affecting denaturation are

Agents such as acids, alkalis, salts
Increase in temp
 Extensive beating

Effect of heat on proteins (Denaturation)

Effect of heat on proteins (Denaturation)

Stages in heat denaturation

Unfolding of helix of the protein molecules as the cross wise link holding helix is disturbed.
R groups are exposed. Re-bonding takes place between adjacent R groups of protein molecules leading to aggregation of the molecule bringing about increased viscosity. This is the first change in denaturation which is called as surface denaturation.
When sufficient proteins have united, the protein molecules are no longer dispersed as a sol. At this stage protein is said to have coagulated (second stage) i.e. water is held in the capillary spaces formed by the united proteins molecules and the coagulation of protein forms a gel.
If the liquid is separated from the coagulated protein, the protein is said to be precipitated or flocculated i.e. curdling take place (third stage of denaturation)

Effects of Denaturation

Properties of denatured proteins are completely different from their native form.
Denatured proteins are easily attacked by proteolytic enzymes, e.g. cooked meat is more easily digested than raw meat.
They show decreased solubility, e.g. cooked egg white is not soluble in water.
They loss their biological activity as enzymes are destroyed e.g. browning does not take place in boiled potato.
Denatured proteins lose their ability to crystallize.
There is an increase in viscosity of food.
Heat Denaturation results in improved flavour and texture e.g. cooking improves flavour in meat and eggs give structure and improves texture of cakes.
Denaturation of food is irreversible unless it occurs under very mild conditions.

Factors affecting Denaturation

 pH – Denaturation is brought about by controlling pH .
Heat – when egg white is heated at 600 C the protein ovalbumin gets denatured. As temperature increases, coagulation takes place and egg white separates out as a solid.
Surface Denaturation – this is brought about by mechanical means e.g. beating egg white or milk to a foam.  If the foam is heated, as in egg white foam, it becomes firm due to the coagulation of ovalbumin.
Salts – when present in a high concentration, it precipitates proteins out of solution and disperses them e.g. cured ham baked in white sauce.
Moisture – low moisture levels cause less Denaturation than higher moisture levels at the same temperature.

Functional properties of proteins

Gelation 

Gelatin is partially degraded protein prepared from collagen.
 Collagen is the intercellular cementing substance between cells.
Skin, ligaments and bones are hydrolyzed by dilute acid or alkali, breaking collagen molecules into shorter fibrous molecules called gelatin.
Dry gelatin is soaked in cold water for preliminary hydration before adding some hot water. The mixture is stirred to form a sol.
Alternatively, hydrated gelatin is heated in a double boiler for gelatin to dissolve. The concentration gelatin sol is added to gel a liquid stirring thoroughly to prevent from solidifying into rubbery strands or lump.

Foamability 

 Egg white is a viscous sol with proteins dispersed in it. It can be beaten into a foam.
The protein ovomucin, ovogloulin and conalbumin are necessary to form a fine  foam with small air cell. As air is incorporated into the liquid, protein molecule collect at the air-water interface. When more air is incorporated, the water layer gets thinner and protein molecule gets stretched and unwinds from their coiled structure.
Surface Denaturation takes place and makes the foam rigid and when heat is applied protein coagulate forming a permanent foam.

Emulsification

 It is the most important process in the manufacturing of many formulated foods. Emulsion represents a heterogeneous mixture of fat globules. Food emulsions can be of the oil in water (O/W) or water in oil (W/O) type. The difference between O/W and W/O emulsions is that an O/W emulsion commonly exhibits a creamy texture, while a W/O system has greasy textural properties.
Protein emulsifying activity is the ability of the protein to participate in emulsion formation and to stabilize the newly created emulsion. The emulsifying capacity is the ability of the protein solution or suspension to emulsify oil. Emulsifying properties are useful functional characteristics which play an important role in the development of new sources of plant protein products for uses as foods. Proteins are the components that dominate in most food emulsions.

Viscosity 

The viscosity of a solution is related to its resistance to flow under an applied force.
Viscosity or consistency of the products is very important for the consumer acceptance of several liquid and semisolid-type foods (e.g. soups, beverages). High-molecular-weight polymers such as proteins greatly increase viscosity.
The viscosity behavior of proteins is affected by several variables including size, shape, protein-solvent interactions, hydrodynamic volume and flexibility in the hydrated state.

COMMERCIAL USES OF PROTEINS

The major role of protein in food preparation includes the ability of proteins to
Form foams
Bind water and form viscous sols and gels
Get coagulated by heat
Exhibit emulsifying properties
Show enzymatic activity

No single protein shows all these properties and these complex reactions are influences by other constituents present in food. Proteins are of major significance in determining the characteristics and nutritional value of food.
Egg, milk and gelatin are used to make gels, foams, whips, soufflés, meringues, custard, cakes, puddings, confections, soups and sauces.
Protein extract from natural and novel sources are being extensively used in the manufacture of convenience food for catering systems and for low-cost feeding programmes which rely on protein to bridge the protein calorie gap.

COMMERCIAL USES OF PROTEINS

Other commercial uses of protein

TEXTURED VEGETABLE PROTEIN (TVP)

Plant protein can be used to produce textured protein products also called protein analogs. They form an important substitute for expensive animal products. Textured vegetable protein (TVP) includes proteins manufactured from soya bean, ground nuts and other oilseed after oil has been expelled. Proteins can also be extracted from green leaves and certain grass and species of microorganisms such as yeast, mould and bacteria.

TEXTURED VEGETABLE PROTEIN (TVP)

The advantage of using TVP is as follows:

1. They can be used as substitute for real meat in curries, biryanis etc.
2. Alternatively they can be used along with real meat as meat extender by mixing it with meat products as in cutlets, keema matar etc.
3. They are equally nutritious as meat and cheaply priced thereby cutting down the costs
4. They are widely used in the food processing industry.
5. They are acceptable to vegetarians and are used in nutrition feeding programmes.

Test you understanding of Proteins

UNIT - 3 FATS AND OILS

Introduction

• The basic use of fats and oils in cookery is to add richness and flavor to food and as a cooking medium to fry or cook food. They improve the texture of various preparations such as cakes, pastries and biscuits.
• Fats and oils are found in plants, animals and marine foods.
• They are organic compounds composed of C, H and O
• Collectively known as LIPIDS
• Immiscible in water but soluble in organic solvent. (Ether, Chloroform, Benzene and Acetone)
• Unlike carbohydrates – contains small proportion of O and larger proportion of H and C
• Provide more energy per gram than carbohydrates.

Classification based on origin

Classification based on degree of saturation

Difference between Fat and Oils

FAT                                                                             OIL                                                     

Remains solid at room temperature.                                    Remains liquid at room temperature.       
Relatively more saturated.                                                   Relatively unsaturated.
Relatively higher melting point.                                          Low melting point.                                   
More stable.                                                                         Less stable.                   

RANCIDITY

• Development of any undesirable odour and flavor in fats and oils causing spoilage.
• Observed when fats and oils are stored for some time.
• Rancidity develops in fats, oils and the fatty phases of foods such as pickles, fried snacks, cakes, cheese and salad dressings.
• Different fats and oils  show varying degree of resistance to spoilage.
• Vegetable oils deteriorate slow.
• Animal fats deteriorate fast.
• Marine oils having high proportion of unsaturated fatty acids deteriorate most rapidly.

Types of rancidity

HYDROLYTIC – by presence of moisture

OXIDATIVE – by presence of oxygen

HYDROLYTIC RANCIDITY

• Hydrolytic rancidity is brought about by hydrolysis of triglyceride molecule to glycerol and free fatty acids by the  presence of moisture in oils. The rate of hydrolysis is hastened by-
• The presence of enzymes e.g. lipase present in oils which have not been subjected to heat treatment.
• Microorganisms such as molds, yeasts and bacteria present in oils or contaminants during processing.

OXIDATIVE RANCIDITY or AUTO OXIDATION 

• The spontaneous uptake of oxygen by the unsaturated oils exposed to air is known as oxidative rancidity.
• It is the most common and important type of rancidity which results in the production of rancid or tallow flavours.
• Moisture and impurities do not have any effect on oxidative rancidity
• It is a chain reaction.
• Once it begins, it is continuous process.
• Occurs in two stages.

OXIDATIVE RANCIDITY or AUTO OXIDATION 

  First stage
Ø  Induction period fat and oil takes up oxygen from the air.
Ø  Oxygen from the air requires a free radical to combine with the fat.
Ø  Heat light and traces of metal help to form free radicals.
Ø  Free radical is formed to the carbon (by removal of 1 hydrogen molecule) adjacent to the carbon involved in double bond.
Ø  The free radical combines with oxygen (O2) forming a peroxide.
Ø  The new free radical combines with another hydrogen atom of another fatty acid to form hydro peroxide and a new free radical.
Ø  This new free radical again takes up two oxygen atoms.
Ø  The chain reaction continues till all unsaturated fatty acids are used up or all oxygen gets exhausted.
    Second stage 
Ø  The peroxide and hydro-peroxide formed rapidly break down into aldehydes and alcohols
Ø  Break down contributes to the undesirable flavor and odor in rancid fat.

REVERSION

• Many fats undergo a change in flavour before turning rancid.
• This change in flavor is very different  from rancid flavour and is called reversion.
• In rancidity the change in flavour is same for all fats.
• In reversion the flavor may be buttery, beany, grassy, painty and fishy.
• Reversion is seen in fish oils, linseed and soya bean oil.
• For reversion very small amount of oxygen is required as compared to oxidative rancidity.

Difference between rancidity and reversion

Factors leading to rancidity and reversion

Temperature

High storage temperature accelerates the development of odour and flavours in fats and oils.
 Moisture
Presence of moisture in butter and oils brings about hydrolytic rancidity. Clarified butter or Pure ghee does not turn rancid because the moisture is removed by heat.

 Air 
The amount of air in contact with the fat or oil is an important factor in determining its shelf life. Auto-oxidation occurs in the presence of oxygen and reversion occurs with very less amount of oxygen. Potato chips and salted nut turn rancid at a faster rate due to their large surface area.

Light
Light accelerates both reversion and rancidity.

Metals
The presence of metal in traces accelerates the development of both reversion and rancidity as they are active pro-oxidant. Metal contamination can occur from equipment used for extraction and refining of oil.

Degree of unsaturation
This is an important criterion for oxidative rancidity and reversion.
Oils containing high proportions of unsaturated fatty acids and shortening made from such oils show flavour reversion.

Absence of anti-oxidants
The natural presence of antioxidants or addition to oils prevents rancidity. Antioxidant takes up oxygen and gets oxidized thereby preventing rancidity.

Prevention of rancidity

• Store fat at low temperature in a cool, dark place.
• Use airtight container with minimum headspace.
• Keep away from strong smelly foods
• Use steel and aluminum container for storage. Copper and iron containers accelerate rancidity.
• Avoid undue exposure to light and air.
• Addition of anti-oxidants delay the rancidity
• Natural antioxidants present in oil are vitamin E and lecithin.

Synthetic Antioxidants

    I.          BHT – butylated hydroxyl toluene
   II.          BHA – butylated hydroxyl anisole
   III.         TBHQ – tertiary butyl hydroquinone
   IV.         EDTA – ethylene diamine tetra acetic acid
If fats and oils are stored for longer period of time they should be hydrogenated. It increases their shelf life and prevents rancidity

Effect of heat on fats and oils

During cooking or prolonged heating of fats and oils certain changes are seen:

• There is an increase in the free fatty acid content.
• Smoke point is lowered.
• Iodine number decreases.
• Melting point falls.
• Fat turns darker in colour.
• Fats get polymerized.

*The smoke point of an oil or fat is the temperature at which, under specific and defined conditions, an oil begins to produce a continuous bluish smoke that becomes clearly visible.

*All commonly used fats and particularly those high in polyunsaturated fatty acids tend to form larger molecules (known broadly as polymers) when heated under extreme conditions of temperature and time.

Polymerization

• This takes place because of the intense heat which the fat is subjected to during frying.
• Lipid breakdown takes place and free fatty acids are released.
• Fatty acids undergo further changes and form polymers.
• The polymers increase the viscosity of the hot fat.
• The colour darkens and quality deteriorates.
• Gum may be formed at the edge of the vessel.
• It is of utmost importance to avoid unnecessary heating of fats and oils and controlling frying temperature and time.

Care of Fats and Oils

• Fats and oils are used in many preparations and as a method of cooking food. If care is not taken while heating and storing fats, it may result in wastage of food as well as fat used for preparing it.
• Do not overheat fats, as they decompose at high temperature.
• Follow a time and temperature chart for frying food.
• Cover fats when left in the deep fryer and ensure that the temperature does not exceed 90 – 95 0 Celsius.
• Strain fat after use and used fat should be stored in closed containers in the refrigerator.
• When fat has to be reused for frying, replace with equal quantity of fresh fat.
• Do not use fats with a low smoke point for frying.
• To prevent fat from going rancid, it should be stored in an airtight container away from light.
• Fat should be stored in tall containers to keep minimum surface area exposed.
• Copper or rusted containers should not be used for storing fats.

Extraction of Fats and Oils

There are three methods for extraction of fats and oils from animal or vegetable tissues.

• Rendering
• Pressing
• Solvent Extraction

Rendering

This method is mainly used for extracting animal fat from fatty tissues. The tissue from which fat is to be extracted is carefully removed from the carcass and chopped or minced.
Rendering is of two types: Wet rendering and Dry rendering.

Wet Rendering: It is carried out in the presence of water. The chopped tissue is treated with very hot water or steam. Fat melts and forms  a layer on top, which is skimmed off. Fat obtained by this method has a bland flavor and complete extraction is not obtained. Antioxidants are added to prevent rancidity.

Dry Rendering: The chopped tissues are heated without addition of water. Lipids escape from the cells and melted fat is removed by draining and squeezing the fat out of the residue.

Pressing

In this method, oil is extracted by the application of high pressure to oilseeds or fruits rich in oil. The oil obtained is filtered to remove any unwanted matter. Oil obtained from the first pressing is called virgin oil and is particularly bland in taste.

In hot pressing, the oil bearing tissue is rolled, crushed or ground into flakes, and then heated by steam to 70 degree Celsius. The hot tissues are pressed to extract oil. Along with oil, gum and free fatty acids are also extracted.

Solvent Extraction

The crushed or flaked tissue is mixed along with the solvent to extract oil. This method is used to extract the fat remaining in the seedcake after pressing. The solvent is separated from the mixture by evaporation.

Refining of Oil

The oil extracted by rendering, pressing or solvent extraction is called crude oil. It may contain undesirable constituents such as gums, free fatty acids etc.
Crude oil needs several types of treatment to extend its shelf life and make it suitable and pure for use.

Steps in refining oil are as follows:

1.Settling – The crushed solid part is allowed to settle down and is removed by filtration.
2.Degumming and neutralization – The gum and free fatty acids are removed by steam distillation.
3.Bleaching – This step removes undesirable colouring and flavouring contaminants. Oil is filtered through activated charcoal till it becomes light in colour.
4.Steam deodourisation – Steam is injected into the hot oil under pressure to get rid of unwanted odour and then it is cooled rapidly.

Winterization of Oil

• After steam deodorization oils are chilled rapidly without stirring.
• Large filterable crystals are formed.
• These crystals are made of heavy triglycerides with high melting point.
• Separated by filtration and the cold viscous oil obtained is said to be winterized.
• Winterized oils do not solidify in refrigerator.
• Suitable to be used in food which require refrigeration e.g. salad dressings and mayonnaise which can be poured even when chilled.
• Olive oil is not winterized or deodorized as flavor is lost.

Hydrogenation of oil

• Liquid oils can be converted to solid fats by the process known as hydrogenation.
• In this process there is an addition of hydrogen to unsaturated fat thus converting oils into solid fats.
• Hydrogenation takes place in a reactor where hydrogen gas is bubbled through the liquid in the presence of nickel as a catalyst.  
• In this process some of the double bonds between the carbon atoms of the fatty acids portion of the triglyceride molecule are broken and hydrogen is added. This chemical change makes the fatty acid more saturated. The melting points of the fats are thereby increased.
• Hydrogenation increases the stability of oils and prevents it from spoilage due to oxidation which results in rancidity.
• Hydrogenation is utilized in the manufacture of a wide variety of fats such as vanaspati and margarine.
• Sometimes additives such as antioxidants, Vit. A, D are added to the fat.
• Air maybe whipped in, to impart a snow white color.
• Palm oil, palmolein, rice bran, cotton seed, sunflower, maize, soyabean, groundnut, and sesame oils are generally hydrogenated.

Shortenings

A shortening is defined as a fat, solid at room temperature, which can be used to give foods a crumbly and crisp texture such as pastry.  Examples of fat used as “shorteners” include butter, margarine, vegetable oils and lard.

• Oils and fats are used in a baked product to reduce the development of gluten giving the foods a crumbly texture.  The fats and oils break down the gluten into “shorter strands” hence the term shorteners.  Coating the flour in fat prevents the flour from absorbing water hindering the formation of gluten.  If too much gluten developed, the food would be stretchy and elastic.
• Shortening is used in most doughs and batters, to give the baked product a crisp and crumbly texture.   Rubbing the fat in causes the baked product to have a flaky texture, as the dough is separated into layers.  When fat is whisked with sugar, a process called creaming, the texture will be more like a cake, and be soft and springy.
•   Fat that covers the greatest surface area of the flour particle in a particular baked product is said to have the greatest shortening power

Factors affecting shortening power of fats

• Nature of fat – greatest unsaturation have greatest shortening power.
• Concentration – concentration of fat increases, shortening power  also increases.
• Temperature – fats are less plastic and oils are more viscous at low temp.
• Other ingredients – emulsified fat and oils have less shortening power
• Manipulation of fat – proper creaming and stirring of fat increases the shortening power

Popular fats and oils

• Oils – from different oil seeds are available refined or unrefined as a single type of oil or as a blend of two or more oils.
• Butter – available as salted and unsalted.
• Spreads – emulsions of oil and water. Available in various flavours. They are blends of hydrogenated oils, water, milk solids, flavouring and colouring. They are easy to spread as compared to butter and margarine. They provide less calories as the air and water content is more.
• Vanaspati –prepared by hydrogenation of oil.
• Margarine –  a substitute for butter which is fortified with vitamin A & D. 
• Suet – fat around the kidneys of animals.
• Dripping – obtained while roasting meat and used for shallow frying.
• Olive oil – used for salad dressings.
• Fresh cream – obtained by skimming whole milk. Synthetic cream is also available, which is prepared from vegetable oils, water, sugar, soy proteins and added flavor.

Commercial uses of fats and oils

• Fats and oils are used in the food industry because of their ability to
• Increase tenderness and make the product soft.
• Fry or cook food.
• Crispness of biscuits.
• Puff pastry.
• Soft and tender cakes with high volume.
• Get creamed and form foams.
• Impart flavor, colour and aroma to food.
• Softer bread.

Test your understanding of Lipids

UNIT 2 - Carbohydrates

Introduction

Food is composed of three main constituents, namely, carbohydrates, proteins, fats and their derivatives.
In addition these constituents , inorganic mineral elements and diverse organic compounds such as vitamins, pigments, enzymes and acids are also present.
The variation in structure, texture, colour, flavor and nutritive value is because of the varying proportions and arrangement of these constituents.
Knowledge of these constituents, their properties and reactions with other constituents is necessary for a person who processes, severs and stores food.

What are Carbohydrates?

Carbohydrates are an important group of nutrients. It is present in various forms in the foods we cook, processed food which we purchase and form the bulk of our diet.

They are organic compounds made up of C, H &. O
They are called carbohydrates because H & O are present in the same proportion as found in water i.e. 2:1.
They are processed in plants by the process of photosynthesis
Chlorophyll is a green pigment which absorbs energy from sunlight and enables plants to build up carbohydrates from CO2 and H20.

Glucose cannot be stored on a large scale so it is converted to starch with the removal of water and is stored in various parts of the plant. E.g. in cereal grains and potatoes CHO is stored as  starch. In bananas, mango and sugar beets it is stored as sugar.
Tender green peas and maize contain carbohydrate in the form of sugar which is converted into starch as the seed matures. However the reverse is seen in the fruits, immature fruits contain starch which is converted into sugar as the fruit ripens.
The various parts of the plant where CHO is stored form the main source of CHO in diet.

Classification of Carbohydrates

MONOSACCHARIDES:

They are the simplest form of CHO found in nature. These simple sugars are made up of a six carbon chain or ring to which hydrogen groups are attached. The general formula is C6H12O6. They differ from one another because of their arrangement of different atoms around the carbon chain and because of this they have different properties and vary in their degree of sweetness.

Glucose- it is the most important CHO used by the body.
 It is absorbed into the blood stream after CHO is digested in the body. It is also known as dextrose. Available in powder and liquid form. It is found in varying amounts in fruits and vegetables. Found in large amount in fruits like grapes, smaller amount in vegetables like peas.

Fructose-It is sweetest of all sugars, is also known as fruit sugar and levulose because it is found in fruits and honey.
In human body it is converted to glucose and oxidized as a source of energy.

Galactose-It is not present in food as such, but produced when lactose a disaccharide is broken down during digestion.

DISSACHARIDES are double sugars composed of two monosaccharides linked together with the removal of a water molecule. These sugars have a general formula C12H22O11
C6H12O6+C6H12O6………C12H22O11

Sucrose-It is table sugar
It is produced in plants by the condensation of glucose and fructose.
It is found in many fruits and vegetables like sugarcane and sugarbeet contain relatively large quantities.
It is from cane and beet that sugar is extracted commercially.

Lactose-It is milk sugar
Made up of one unit of glucose and one unit of galactose.
It is least sweet of all sugars and easily fermented to lactic acid by lactic acid bacteria while preparing curd and cheese.

Maltose-It is made up of two units of glucose.
During the germination of whole grains starch is broken down into maltose
In the body maltose is formed during digestion of starch.


 Oligosaccharide
Any carbohydrate of from three to six units of simple sugars (monosaccharides). A large number of oligosaccharides have been prepared by partially breaking down more complex carbohydrates (polysaccharides). Most of the few naturally occurring oligosaccharides are found in plants.
Raffinose and stachyose may promote the growth of beneficial intestinal bacteria, but are currently not considered prebiotics.

Raffinose - also called melitose, is composed of 3 sugars: galactose, glucose and fructose. Examples of foods naturally high in raffinose are beans, asparagus, cotton seeds, sugar beet molasses, cabbage, broccoli, Brussel’s sprouts, sweet potatoes and whole grains . Raffinose as a sweetener is extracted from sugar beet molasses.

Stachyose - Stachyose is composed of 4 sugar molecules: 2 galactoses, glucose and fructose. It is found mainly in beans and peas .


POLYSACCHARIDES  - are complex carbohydrates made up of 100-2000 glucose units linked to each other in chain or branched form. The number of glucose units, their arrangement and linkage to one another influence the properties of the polsaccharides.

Dextrins- They are smallest and simplest of all polysaccharides.
They are formed by dry heating or acid hydrolysis of starch.
They are slightly soluble have a mild sweet taste and limited thickening ability.

Starch-It is found in most parts of the plant as a reserve store of carbohydrate.
It is usually present in the seed and root in large amounts.
Starch consists of long chains of glucose units present in two forms amylose and amylopectin.

STARCH
Amylose –
 It is a large molecule made up of 200 or more glucose units .
They are present as linear chain which can bond to each other by hydrogen bonds and form a gel.
Starches from different sources differ in their amylase content. Amylose does not have sweet taste, is slightly soluble, has good thickening ability and is present 20-30% of total starch in most grains.

Amylopectin –
It is also made up of glucose units only and are present in form of large branched polysaccharide.
The molecules of amylopectin are very large and as it is branched structure it is sparingly soluble, not sweet and is predominant form in the starch granule with low gelling
Cereal starches, such as corn, rice, wheat, oats, sago and tapioca are used as thickening and gelling agents.
Genetic research and plant breeding have enabled us to develop starches containing 100 per cent amylopectin, which are called waxy starch and they do not form gels.  Starch with high amylose has also been developed.

STARCH

EFFECT OF COOKING ON STARCH
GELATINIZATION (wet heat)

Ø  When starch granules are mixed with cold water they do not dissolve but form suspension.

Ø  When the water is heated, the granules begin to swell. The heat energy breaks the hydrogen bonds in the starch granules and facilitates the entry of water into the granules. At the same time some amylose from the granules leaches into the cooking water.
Ø  The starch chains in the granules absorb moisture and begin to uncoil from their tightly packed configuration.
Ø  The size of the granules increase as more and more water enters. The water in the granules gets bonded to amylose and amylopectin.
Ø  The mixture becomes viscous and translucent after continuous heating. Swollen granules find it difficult to move past each other, adding to the viscosity of the mixture.
Ø  This process of swelling of the starch granules and formation of viscous starch paste is called
GELATINIZATION
Ø  The temp at which the granules swell is called the GELATINIZATION TEMPERATURE and is characteristic of each starch.

FACTORS AFFECTING THE PROPERTIES OF STARCH AS A THICKENING AGENT

1)     MIXING AND STIRRING
Ø  When starch is used as a thickening agent in soups or custards, it should be dispersed completely to prevent unequal swelling or lumps forming in a starch thickened product. This can be achieved by:
a)     Mixing well with cold H2O
b)     Mixing with melted fat to coat starch particles.
c)     Mixing with another dry ingredient.
Ø  Once starch is dispersed continuous stirring is necessary till gelatinization is complete
Ø  Stirring of hot starch pastes prevent lumps and sticking of gelatinized starch to the sides of the pan.
Ø  Excessive stirring of the starch paste can break the starch granules, releasing amylose & amylopectin into the liquid resulting in a less viscous product.

2)     TEMPERATURE
Ø  Starch paste gradually thicken with increase in temp from 52˚C to 65˚C . The starch granules continue to swell & amylose leaches out of the granule. Shorter amylose molecules have more solubility as the temp approaches 90-100˚C, some granules may burst & fragment.
Ø  Continuous heating decreases the viscosity of starches as granules which reach their maximum volume implode and result in thinning of starch pastes. When cool it may thicken again.

3)     TYPE OF STARCH
Ø  Different starches have different thickening power for eg. Potato starch has the greatest thickening power, followed by waxy starches, tapioca , corn , rice , & wheat which has least thickening  power.
Ø  The texture should ideally be smooth & not stringy & mucilaginous. Root starches such as tapioca are mucilaginous. Root starches such as tapioca & potato, are more mucilaginous than cereal starches. They are more trans lucent when gelatinized. Of  all starches, corn starch is the best thickening agent in terms of texture.

4)     EFFECT OF ADDED INGREDIENTS
 Ø  SUGAR:  When sugar is added to starch thickened paste, because of its hygroscopic nature it competes with starch for H2O needed for gelatinization . Gelatinization temp is higher when sugar is added and the time taken for gel is longer. Sugar reduces the viscosity & strength of the gel. It increases translucency.
Ø  ACID :  When starch paste is heated with acid like lime juice at pH below 4 , starch molecules are hydrolyzed into slightly smaller molecules .Acid hydrolysis results in thinning of the starch paste as smaller molecules move freely in the paste. If acid is added after gelatinization of starch , the paste does not turn thin.
Ø  FATS:  Presence of fat in starch – thickened pastes lowers the gelatinization and thickening temp.
Ø  MILK PROTEINS :  Gelatinization temp is lowered if milk is an added ingredient

GELATION

Ø  Gelatinized starch mixture may exhibit flow properties & remain a sol or may cool and set to from a gel.
Ø  The amylose , which has leached  out  of the swollen starch granule , forms Hydrogen  bonds with other amylose molecules as the starch paste cools & loses energy
Ø  Amylose molecules moves slowly forming bonds & a 3 dimensional continuous network of amylose is formed in which swollen granules are trapped
Ø  This forms a continuous phase of the newly formed starch gel in which water is dispersed. The starch mixture is transformed formed into a gel & no longer exhibits flow properties.

FACTORS AFFECTING GELATION

1)     Type of starch
2)     Concentration of starch.
3)     Duration of heating.
4)     Stirring.
5)     Other ingredients.
6)     Aging of gel.

FACTORS AFFECTING GELATION
TYPE OF STARCH

Ø  The proportion of amylose & amylopectin in the starch determines whether  a gel will form & whether  it will be permanent. The straight chains of amylose form bonds quickly & easily while the branches of amylopectin come in the way & prevent formation of firm gel. Starches rich in amylose can form gel at low concentration while starches lack amylose eg. Waxy starches can form soft gels at high concentration.

Ø  Eg. Wheat & rice flours are good thickening agents but poor gelling agents. Chemically modified starches form stable gel.

CONCENTRATION OF STARCH

Ø  Corn starch form a firm gel at 10% concentration while waxy starches lack amylose can for a soft gel at 30% concentration. Starches containing large amounts of amylose will gel at low concentration.
1Tbsp sp starch in 1 cup liquid – thin sauce
2 Tbsp sp starch in 1 cup liquid -medium consistency
3 Tbsp sp starch in 1 cup liquid -thick sauce

DURATION OF HEATING
Ø  When starch is heated along with water the hydrogen bonds in the starch granule break and amylose fraction of starch leaches into the surrounding water.
Ø  A starch paste should be heated gradually for granules to swell and release sufficient amylose to form a gel. Prolonged heating results in fragmentation of amylose and formation of a weak gel with pasty texture.

STIRRING
Ø  Vigorous stirring during heating results in fragmentation of amylose.
Ø  A firm gel forms when paste is allowed to cool undisturbed. Amylose starts forming bonds as the mixture cools and starts gelling. Stirring disrupts the bonds and results in a weak gel.
Ø  Essences and colors should be added to the starch mixture as soon as it is removed from heat and not while mixture is cool.

OTHER INGREDIENTS
Ø  Sugar, acids, etc. modify the behavior of starch gel
Ø  The greater the amount of sugar in the product the more delicate the gel is formed, as sugar prevents water from binding to starch
Ø  Acid hydrolyse the amylose chain resulting in a more tender gel. this is seen when acids are added before gelatinization of starch. If added after gelatinization of starch, the gel is soft because of extra liquid from lime juice or fruit juice.

AGING OF GEL
Ø  In a starch gel water is trapped as dispersed phase within the gel. Water is also bonded by hydrogen bonding to amylose molecules and starch granules which form the matrix of the gel.
Ø  When the gel stales or the structure is disrupted by cutting the gel, water which is trapped in the gel is released and gel collapses. This weeping or loss of moisture from a gel  is called SYNERESIS

RETROGRADATION

Ø  Amylose starches form gel readily but these gels are less stable as amylose chains have a tendency to recoil and partially recrystallize. Some hydrogen bonds which hold the gel together break and amylose molecules move around forming new bonds.

Ø  As the gel stales amylose molecules rearrange themselves in an orderly manner in crystalline regions. This is accompanied by loss of solubility and release of water from the gels, causing food defect.
Ø  Thus retrogradation occurs when a starch gel stales or when it is frozen. A starch gel which has retrograded loses its smooth texture and feels gritty when eaten.
Ø  The rate and extent of retrogradation are influenced by temp, size, shape and concentration of starch. Starch retrogrades rapidly at 0º C.
Ø  The texture defects caused by retrogradation in foods which can be heated are temporarily corrected by warming the food containing starch.
The problem of retrogradation is of concern in cold starch based gels. This can be corrected by using starches which are stable to freezing and thawing.

DEXTRINIZATION (dry roasting of starch)

Ø  When starch is heated without any water, the temp rises rapidly beyond 100C.
Ø   Water which is naturally present in flour and high temp brings about chemical changes or degradation of flour, splitting the starch molecule at one or more of the α1,4 glucosidic linkages. This reaction is called dextrinization and the short chain starch molecules of varying length formed are called dextrins.
Ø  This process is seen when flour is browned while making brown roux for gravies and sauces. Browned flour has lesser thickening ability because of formation of short chain dextrins.

Uses of Carbohydrates in Food Preparation

Starch from various sources in its natural form is used as a thickening and gelling agent in a wide range of products. It is the primary thickening agent used in soups and sauces.
These sauces are used in vegetable and meat based preparations, salads and pastas. It is also used in custard sauce, puddings, pie fillings and soufflés.
Sugar has a wide range of uses apart from sweetening and energy giving. Sugar cookery involves controlled formation of crystals which has a direct bearing on the texture of crystalline candies such as fondants and fudges.

Some uses of Carbohydrates:

Carbohydrates	Use
Refined flour	Thickening sauces and soups specially used in the form of a roux.
Rice	Thickening soups and rice puddings
Arrowroot	For clear soups
Tapioca	Used for pudding
Potato	Used for soups which could curdle at high temperatures
Waxy rice flour	White sauces and starch thickened pudding which need to be stored frozen and thawed before cooking.
Corn flour	Thickening soups, sauces, gravies and anti-caking agent.
Pectin	Setting agent in jams, jellies and marmalades
Seaweed extracts	Prevent ice crystal formation in ice cream
Glucose	Used as a humectant in confectionery
Caramel	Used as coloring and flavoring agent in Christmas cake, soup mixes, instant pudding etc.
Invert Sugar	Prevents formation of sugar crystals in preserves and fondants

Conclusion

Carbohydrates are one of the most important constituents of food.

They are manufactured by plants through the process of photosynthesis.
The glucose formed in this process is stored in form of starch to be used as food.
On the basis of saccharides or sugar units they are classified into Mono, Di, Oligo and Poly (saccharides)
Starch is present in two forms, Amylose and Amylopectin.

The food industry depends on natural and modified carbohydrates for specific additive functions in many processed foods.

Test your understanding of Carbohydrates

UNIT 1 - PRINCIPLES OF FOOD SCIENCE

Introduction
Man’s basic drive is for food to satisfy his hunger. Food is intimately woven into the physical, economical, psychological, intellectual and social life of man. It is a part of his culture and is filled with many different meanings and symbolism's for all individuals at various ages and stages of their maturity.

• Food is source of power.
• Food is source of security.
• Food is a status symbol.
• Food is a symbol of hospitality and friendship throughout the world. (We offer our hospitality to guest through an offer of food or a drink)
• Food is an outlet for emotion.

The food industry, be it the processing industry or the catering industry is one of the largest and most needed industry in the world today, fulfilling one of our basic need, ie; food.
Development of food industry can be traced back with various examples of food preservation, being time immemorial. Improvement in equipment and machinery has made possible to increase the capacity of food processing plants.
The aesthetic value of food of food is important. To be able to offer the consumer quality cuisine, basic knowledge of food science and its application is necessary. Every food handler should know foods composition, structure, behavior and the changes that takes place during cooking, holding and storage as well as what happens to food once it is consumed ie, its digestion , absorption, and metabolism in the human body.

Definition

Food is defined as anything solid or liquid which when swallowed, digested and assimilated and nourishes the body.
Food science is a systematic study of the nature of food materials and the scientific principles underlying their modification, preservation and spoilage.
Study of the characteristics of foods including chemical properties, biochemical properties, physical properties, and effects of these on the quality of products it also covers application of this information to development of new products and efficient food processing techniques. (Dictionary of food science).

It is a discipline in which the biological and physical sciences and engineering are used to study the nature of foods, the causes of their deterioration, and the principles underlying food processing. It deals with acquisition of new knowledge to elucidate the course of reactions or changes occurring in foods whether natural or induced by handling procedures.
Food is a mixture of many different chemical components. The study of food science involves an understanding of the changes that occur in these components during food preparation whether natural or induced by handling procedures many physical and chemical reaction occur during food preparation these reactions may be a result of the interaction between components with the medium of cooking, and the environmental conditions like heat cold light and air to which they are subjected during cooking.
Study of food science also includes understanding the nutritive value of different foods and methods of preserving them during cooking this information provides a foundation of theory and method on which they build the study of food preparation.

Scope of Food Science

With liberalization of Indian economy, all-round industrial growth has been witnessed in all sectors with improvement in social and economic conditions of our people.
This has created demand for more and better quality foods. With advancement in production technology, high yield levels will lead to large amount of marketable surplus of food grains and crop residues, demanding appropriate handling, processing, preservation, storage, marketing and utilization.
The development of processing industries to preserve the perishable agricultural produce will not only improve economic and nutritional status of our population but it may help in employment generation in rural as well as urban areas of the country.

The importance of food science  lies in the fact that it has capability to provide food to our population through scientific conservations, eliminating avoidable losses and making available more balanced and nutritious food.
High value products from low grade material can be produced by innovative and appropriate processing and packaging technologies and also from by-products and residue waste using integrated approach.
 The role of food technologist does not stop at farm level but it continues till the harvested crops and animal products are processed, preserved and further modified into useful and nutritious products, until it is utilized by the consumer.
Moreover, with development of processing industries, it is quite likely that the demand for food scientists and technologists will increase in the next few decades.

Food Science and its relation with other Sciences

To understand food science the basic concepts of physics, chemistry, biology, mathematics and their applications ie. Biochemistry, microbiology and food technology are necessary to prepare, package, store and serve wholesome high quality products.
All foods are chemical compounds which undergo various chemical reactions at all stage from production to consumption These reactions are based on the laws of chemistry. Many processes used while preparing food involve physical changes apart from chemical changes.

Food Science and Physics

There are 3 states of matter – Gases, Liquid, Solids.
As temperature is increased or decreased Solids get converted to Liquid which further converts to Gases, with change in chemical compounds. But decomposition of organic compounds place , undergoing various chemical reactions take place instead of change in state when temperature is raised.
Many foods are complex mixtures of chemical substances. In processed foods additives are added to improve colour, texture, flavour etc. These additives are chemical compounds. It undergoes further chemical changes during storage, cooking, processing as well as in the human body during digestion of food by action of chemical substances
During preparation and storage food is subjected to various physical conditions which affects its quality eg. temperature and pressure changes.

Food Science and chemistry

It is the science that deals with the composition, structure and properties of food and  with chemical changes that take place in food.
It forms a major part of food science and is closely related to food microbiology
The chemical composition of food tells which micro-organism can grow on it and the changes that take place in the food because of their growth.
Changes can be desirable and undesirable which can lead to contamination of the food and further leading to food poisoning, food infection or just spoiling of the food rendering it unfit for consumption.

Food Science and Microbiology

Microbiology is the study of micro organisms. Micro organisms are very small, usually single celled organisms which are not individually visible to the naked eye. If they are present in large number in food can lead to food poisoning. They are being used by man for production of certain foods eg. bread and yoghurt.
Interactions between Micro-organisms, plants and animals are natural and constant. Since the human food supply consists basically and animals or products derived from them, it is understandable that our food supply can contain micro-organisms in interaction with the food.
A knowledge of the factors that favors or inhibit the growth of Micro -organisms is essential to an understanding of the principle of food spoilage and preservation.
Food chemistry and food microbiology are intimately related to food processing because the processes to which food needs to be subjected to improve its texture, flavor and aroma depend on its composition and ingredients. The time and temperature for food processing depends not only on the chemical composition of food but on its microbial load and the type of packaging to be used.

Food Processing

The growing public demand for meals away from home has made the problem of serving safe, wholesome food more critical and challenging. This makes it imperative for food handlers to understand and implement the basic principles of the food science to enable them to prepare and serve high quality products over extended hours.
Rapid urbanization has lead to increase in demand of convenience foods (foods that require little labor and time to prepare eg. frozen peas). To these food additives are added to restore properties and to bring certain changes for storage. The special requirements for them are:
They need to be handled properly.
Not to be stored in open.
Maintenance of hygienic condition.
Similarly numerous food choices exist like canned foods, snacks, soups etc.

Conclusion

Thus food science covers all the aspects of food from properties of food materials and influences of all factors affecting food, beginning from growing the food to harvesting or slaughter i.e. all stages, from raw till it is consumed like processing, nutritive value, shelf life, novel sources of food, fabricated food and food analogs, conservation and re-use of resources to make more food.

Hence we can say that study of food science will be of benefit to all food professionals.